2.4 Prepositions

Prepositions precede a noun, noun phrase, or name to form a prepositional phrase which modifies the main verb of the sentence. Prepositions in Ayola are always fundamental and are not derived from other parts of speech. Prepositions occur in either elementary or compound forms:

Elementary: elementary word having the preposition ending

Compound: (root) + root + ending

where the ending is always –u and the components in parentheses are optional. Elementary prepositions consist of only one morpheme, i.e. unit of meaning, and cannot be separated into parts. Compound prepositions consist of two or more morphemes and can be separated into parts. Those which contain one root are called simple; those which contain two roots are called complex.

Elementary Prepositions

byu by ecu with/from/etc.

acu to/for/etc.

Compound Prepositions

Simple Complex

alu to delonderu from under

postu after alfrentu to the front of

Prepositional phrases can move freely within a sentence.

Dya kondwirits alu la butiko.	She drove to the store.
Alu la butiko dya kondwirits.	To the store she drove.
Dya plondjits aynu la vodo.	He dove into the water.
Aynu la vodo dya plondjits.	Into the water he dove.

2.4.1 Elementary Prepositions

Four very important prepositions are elementary words, namely, the agent preposition byu (by), the choice-question preposition kyu, and the built-in-joint-argument prepositions ecu (with/from/etc.) and acu (to/for/etc.). These prepositions end in the preposition ending -u, but do not consist of a root and an ending which can be modified to form other parts of speech such as nouns, adjectives and verbs. .

The Agent Preposition byu

The agent preposition byu (by, through the agency of) is used to mark the agent (logical subject) of an action, in both direct-object passive and indirect-object passive constructions.

Dya geamats byu Djon.	She is loved by John.
Byu Djon dya geamats.	By John she is loved.
Dya godonits libro byu Djon.	She was given a book by John.
Byu Djon dya godonits libro.	By John she was given a book.

The preposition byu is also used to mark the agent of an action when the action verb is not explicitly stated but is implied as in this sentence:

La pentruro estats byu Rembrant.

The painting is by Rembrandt.

The above sentence is an abbreviated form of the following sentence where the action verb is explicitly stated:

La pentruro gefarits byu Rembrant.

The painting was done by Rembrandt.

The Choice-Question Preposition kyu

The choice-question preposition kyu is used to mark a choice of items denoted by a string of nouns, names, noun phrases or other phrases connected by one of the connectives caw (or (exclusive)) or cay (or (inclusive)). The best translation of kyu into English is ‘of the choice of.’

For further discussion of choice questions, see Chapter 3.2 Questions.

The Built-In-Joint-Argument Prepositions ecu and acu

The built-in-joint-argument prepositions ecu (with/from/etc.) and acu (to/for/etc.) are used with a small but important group of verbs such as ‘combine’, ‘mix’, ‘join’, ‘separate’, ‘converse’, ‘prefer’, ‘substitute’, etc. which require at least two arguments of the same type, i.e. joint arguments, to complete their meaning.

ecu is used when the joint arguments are symmetric; that is, they can be interchanged without a change in meaning, and the two arguments occur on opposite sides of the verb.

Active Forms
La hidrogeno kombinats ecu la oksigeno.	The hydrogen combines with the oxygen.
La unta strado djuntats ecu la dusto.	The first street joins to the second.
La djera pado seprihats ecu la nucto.	The wide path separates from the narrow one.
Passive Forms
La hidrogeno gekombinwats ecu la oksigeno byu la kimisto.	The hydrogen is combined with the oxygen by the chemist.
La unta strado gedjuntwats ecu la dusto byu la pracoy.	The first street is joined to the second by the workers.
La hundo geseprizits ecu la katso byu la dusa viroy.	The dog was separated from the cat by the two men.

Note the simplicity of the Ayola sentences in using only the one preposition ecu. Different prepositions are not needed because the meaning of the action is fully expressed by the verb.

acu is used when two arguments of the same type are asymmetric; that is, they cannot be interchanged without a change in meaning, and the two arguments occur on opposite sides of the verb.

Active Forms
x substitutats acu y enu tisa ekwaciono.	x substitutes for y in this equation.
Passive Forms
x gesubstitutwats acu y enu tisa ekwaciono byu la matematisto.	x is substituted for y in this equation by the mathematician.
Lo teho gepreferats acu lo kafo byu Dik.	Tea is preferred to coffee by Dick.

Ecu and acu pair with the built-in-joint-argument connectives cwe and cwa, respectively, which are used when the joint arguments occur together on the same side of the verb. See Section 2.4.4 for a discussion of their use.

2.4.2 Compound Prepositions

Simple Prepositions

Simple prepositions consist of a single root plus the –u ending. There are two subclasses: simple sentential prepositions and simple subject/object reference prepositions.

Simple Sentential Prepositions

Simple sentential prepositions modify the entire sentence and express a wide variety of relations including place, time, direction, means/method, cause, etc. They often come in pairs such as overu (above) and underu (below) or anteyu (before) and postu (after). The commonly used simple sentential prepositions are shown in the tables below, grouped according to category.

Table 2.4-1 Simple Sentential Prepositions Organized by Category

Note that twelve of the above common simple sentential prepositions denoting temporal/spatial position or direction are unified by a phonetic system in which the leading vowel denotes a temporal or spatial category and the succeeding consonant denotes a point, region or non-region as given in the following table.

Table 2.4-2 Simple Unified System for the Common Prepositions of Temporal/Spatial Position or Direction

Location	Space (e-/o-)	Time (a-)	Direction (ay-/aw-) (Space and Time)
Region (-n-)	enu (in)	anu (in/on/-)	aynu (into)
Non-region (-f-)	efu (out of)	ayfu (not in/on/-)	ayfu (out of)
Point (-t-)	etu (at)	atu (at)	-
Surface (-n-)	onu (on)	-	awnu (onto)
Non-surface (-f-)	ofu (off of)	-	awfu (off of)

Here are some examples of the use of the common simple sentential prepositions.

Myo telefonirits myoza onklo atu oco.	I telephoned my uncle at eight.
Myo ganuts alu Frans anu Julion.	I will go to France in July.
Anu Julion myo ganuts alu Frans.	In July I will go to France.
Myo prenits la pikturo delu la libro ce donits dwa alu myoza amiko.	I took the picture from the book and gave it to my friend.
Dze estats animalo parmu la arboroy.	There is an animal among the trees.
Elu caka myoza amikoy, dya estats la pluste bona studento.	Among all of my friends, she is the best student.
Dya gratits dyo pwaru la libro.	She thanked him for the book.
Tom ludits teniso kunu Dik avu hoca energio.	Tom played tennis with Dick with great energy.
Tyo devats studare furu lernare.	One must study in order to learn.
Furu lernare tyo devats studare.	In order to learn one must study.
Dya plenizits la balono veku heliumo.	He filled the balloon with helium.
Dya pustizits la glaso veku vino.	She emptied the glass of wine.
Dya helpits myo aldu lernare fiziko.	She helped me to learn physics.
La nivo deterits myo deldu ganare.	The snow deterred me from going.
Dyay viadjits alu Europa viyu Island.	They traveled to Europe by way of Iceland.
Miza filho zvyelats kwantu nawfa djaroy.	My son is nine years old.
Dya kurits kwantu deca mayloy.	She ran ten miles.
Dya kondwirits kwantu tcen-dusdeca mayloy reytu sesdeca mayloy dwi horo.	She drove one hundred twenty miles at a rate of sixty miles an hour.

Simple Subject/Object Reference Prepositions

Simple subject/object reference prepositions precede a noun phrase which refers to either the subject or object of the sentence. In English and other languages this reference is ambiguous because there is nothing marking whether the preposition refers to the subject or object. In Ayola, this ambiguity is eliminated by the addition of an –r- to the basic subject-reference preposition root to create the object-reference preposition root. The common subject/object reference prepositions are shown in the following tables.

Comparison
asu	as/than (something compared to subject)	asru	as/than (something compared to object)
licu	like (something compared to subject)	licru	like (something compared to object)

Assignment/Interpretation
ezu	as (something to which subject is assigned or as which subject is interpreted)	ezru	as (something to which object is assigned or as which object is interpreted)

Here are some examples of the use of simple subject/object reference prepositions.

Complex Prepositions

Some simple preposition roots may combine with other simple preposition roots in order to form complex prepositions which denote motion in either space or time. The roots al- (to), del- (from), or viy-/via- (by way of) can combine with other roots denoting spatial position. (Note that the combining form of viyu is the root viy- before a vowel and via- before a consonant.) The roots from- (since) or til- (until) can combine with other roots denoting temporal position. Some commonly used complex prepositions are given in the tables below.

Table 2.4-3 Complex Prepositions

Temporal Direction
fromanteyu	since before	frompostu	since after
tilanteyu	until before	tilpostu	until after

Note how in the following examples the Ayola compound prepositions eliminate the ambiguities of the English preposition ‘under’.

La katso ludantats onderu la tablo.	The cat is playing under the table.
La katso kurits alonderu la tablo.	The cat ran under (to under) the table.
La katso kurits delonderu la tablo.	The cat ran from under the table.
La katso kurits viyonderu la tablo.	The cat ran under the table (on the way to somewhere else).

2.4.3 Using the Prepositions ecu and kunu

Although the prepositions ecu and kunu both translate as ‘with’ in English, they function differently in Ayola. Consider the two sentences:

Dik konversits vonu politiko ecu Djim.	Dick conversed about politics with Jim.
Dik ganits alu Nu York kunu Djim.	Dick went to New York with Jim.

One might ask why Ayola cannot use kunu in the first sentence as well as the second. The answer lies in the contrast between the two verbs. Konversare requires a joint subject denoting at least two persons whereas with ganare the jointness of the subject is optional.

Both ecu and kunu have associated connectives, viz. cwe and ceyu, respectively, which are used when the joint subjects are on the same side of the verb. The following sentences are identical in meaning to the ones above.

Dik cwe Djim konversits vonu politiko.	Dick and Jim conversed about politics.
Dik ceyu Djim ganits alu Nu York.	Dick and Jim went to New York.

Note that, if the connective ce were used here, joint action would not necessarily be implied. For further discussion of cwe and ceyu see Section 3.3.6.

Whereas kunu is always translated as ‘with’, ecu is sometimes translated as ‘from’ with some verbs, e.g. seprizare.

La bambinoy geseprizits ecu la adultoy.

The children were separated from the adults.

Correspondingly, whereas ceyu is always translated as ‘and’, cwe may sometimes be translated as ‘from’.

Dyay seprizits la bambinoy cwe la adultoy.

They separated the children and/from the adults.

2.4.4 Prepositions and Connectives for Multiple Arguments of the Same Type

Table 2.4-3 Prepositions and Connectives for Symmetric and

Asymmetric Built-In Joint Arguments

Some verbs such as ‘mix’, ‘separate’, ‘prefer’, and ‘substitute’ denote relations between or actions involving multiple arguments of the same type. These joint arguments occur as direct objects when the verbs are in the active voice and subjects when the verbs are in the passive voice.

If the arguments are symmetric, i.e. they can be interchanged without a change in meaning, the second argument is preceded by the preposition ecu (with/from) when the arguments are separated and by the connective cwe (and/with/from) when the arguments are adjacent.

La farino gemikswits ecu la sukero byu Meri.	The flour was mixed with the sugar by Mary.
Meri mikswits la farino cwe la sukero.	Mary mixed the flour and/with the sugar.
La farino cwe la sukero gemikswits byu Meri.	The flour and the sugar were mixed by Mary.
La bambinoy geseprizits ecu la adultoy byu la gwido.	The children were separated from the adults by the guide.
La gwido seprizits la bambinoy cwe la adultoy.	The guide separated the children and/from the adults.
La bambinoy cwe la adultoy geseprizits byu la gwido.	The children and the adults were separated by the guide.

If the arguments are asymmetric, i.e. they cannot be interchanged without a change in meaning, the second argument is preceded by the preposition acu (to/for) when the arguments are separated and by the connective cwa (to/for) when the arguments are adjacent.

Lo teho gepreferats acu lo kafo byu Dik.	Tea is preferred to coffee by Dick.
Dik preferats lo teho cwa lo kafo.	Dick prefers tea to coffee.
Lo teho cwa lo kafo gepreferats byu Dik.	Tea in contrast to coffee is preferred by Dick.
Duso gesubstitutwits acu x byu la instrukto.	Two was substituted for x by the teacher.
La instrukto substitutwits duso cwa x.	The teacher substituted two for x.
Duso cwa x gesubstitutwits byu la instrukto.	Two as the value for x was substituted by the teacher.

Note the variety of words with which these prepositions and connectives may be translated in English. This great variety may result in ambiguities since the English prepositions and connectives have other meanings. ‘with’ may refer to an optional joint subject; ‘from’ may refer to an origin or source; ‘to’ may refer to a destination or recipient; ‘for’ has a number of other meanings; ‘and’ may connect two independent subjects or objects for whom the statement is true. In addition, more elaborate phrases such as ‘in contrast to’ and ‘as the value for’ must sometimes be used in order for the sentence to be grammatically correct in English.

In Ayola the four words ecu, cwe, acu and cwa are used only with verbs (as well as with nouns and prepositions) which have obligatory joint arguments, and their use is decided by the two conditions of symmetry/asymmetry and separation/adjacency. The two pairs of words (ecu, cwe) and (acu, cwa) are used in completely parallel fashion and no additional phrasing is required.

2.4.5 Preposition Roots Used in Other Parts of Speech

Compound prepositions are the most versatile of all of the parts of speech. Their roots may be used in six derived forms in addition to the fundamental prepositional form. Note how the preposition postu (after) can operate as a verb, adjective, and noun in the following sentences:

postu la konserto	after the concert
La festo postats la konserto.	The party is after the concert.
la posta festo	the after (concert) party
la posto	the after (concert) one

Nouns Derived from Prepositions

Nouns derived from prepositions denote the person(s) or thing(s) which is/are the subject of prepositional relation, e.g. the one(s) which is/are above, below, before, after, with, without, etc.

La overo estats pluse simpla asu la onderoy.	The one above is simpler than the ones below.
Myo preferats la anteyo ecu la posto.	I prefer the one before to the one after.

Adjectives Derived from Prepositions

Adjectives derived from prepositions express the prepositional relation as a descriptive adjective which precedes a noun or pronoun.

La overa satso estats pluse simpla asu la ondero.	The above sentence is simpler than the one below.
Myo preferats le posta festo ecu le anteya io.	I prefer parties after something to those before something.

Verbs Derived from Prepositions

Verbs derived from simple compound prepositions express the prepositional relation using a single word instead of a form of estare (to be) plus a preposition. This is the preferred style in Ayola when the prepositional relation is the principal relation of the sentence and not a subsidiary relation stating the time when, the place where, the reason why, etc. an action occurred. Verbs cannot be derived from elementary prepositions. Note the contrast between the use of preposition roots in prepositions and in verbs in the following sentences.

La bambinoy ludantats enu la parko.	The children are playing in the park.
La ludajo ji la bambinoy enats la parko.	The playing of the children is in the park.
Dze okazuts festo postu la konserto.	There will occur a party after the concert.
Festo postuts la konserto.	A party will follow the concert.

Although English does not provide a regular grammatical rule for “verbifying” prepositions, we often use a related verb (‘follow’ with ‘after’, ‘surround’ with ‘around’, etc.) to achieve a more compact style. Ayola does provide a regular rule which can be used for all prepositions.

Adverbs Derived from Prepositions

Adverbs derived from prepositions act like a prepositional phrase with an unspecified object, whose identity is understood from the context.

Dze okazuts festo poste.	There will occur a party afterward (after the concert).
Trotse moy aynde culdats ganare.	Nevertheless (despite what has been mentioned previously) we still should go.

Links Derived from Prepositions

Links are derived from prepositions by prefixing the preposition with c- (before an initial voiceless consonant), j- (before an initial voiced consonant) or jy- (before an initial vowel). Link phrases are analogous to prepositional phrases, except that they modify nouns instead of verbs and are bound to the noun instead of free to move within a sentence.

La bambinoy jenu la parko ludantats.	The children in the park are playing.
La festo cpostu la konserto natcuts atu 11:30 PM.	The party after the concert will begin at 11:30 PM.

For further discussion see Chapter 2.5 Links.

2.4.6 Complex Words Derived Using Prepositions

Complex Adjectives Derived Using Prepositions

Complex adjectives can be formed by prefixing a noun root with a preposition root.

La urbay parko enats encentra lwoko.	The city park is in a central location.
Hyo estits la avbarba profesoro jenu la awdago?	Who was the bearded professor in the audience?

Ayola does not build complex descriptive adjectives by adding suffixes to nouns because in order to achieve the desired precision of meaning a very large number of suffixes would be required. English uses a relatively small number of suffixes such as -al, -ic,

-ous, etc., but they are notoriously vague in meaning. Instead, Ayola forms complex adjectives by prefixing preposition roots as illustrated above, and thus avoids the ambiguities encountered in English and other natural languages.

For further discussion see Chapter 2.7 Adjectives.

Complex Nouns Derived Using Prepositions

Complex Verbs Derived Using Prepositions

Exercises

Exercise 1

Translate the underlined words into Ayola. Note: Some underlined words need to be modified into parts of speech other than prepositions and incorporate adjacent English words.

1. The train stops at the airport at every half-hour.

2. I lived above a restaurant when I was in Paris.

3. The vase is on the papers, not beside them.

4. I live among the apartment buildings which are in front of the library.

5. Take the subway from downtown to the suburbs.

6. I want to move away from this place.

7. The biker is riding toward the sunset.

8. Is the building between the city hall and the library?

9. No, it’s the building opposite to the city hall.

10. Hiding below a bridge is not safe.

11. The girl who is kicking my chair is behind me.

12. Stay off of the street, children!

13. Stay on this side of the yard.

14. Did he move beyond the city’s border?

15. You can go by way of taxi.

Exercise 2

The following underlined words can have multiple meanings in English. Decide which meaning is appropriate in the sentence. Translate the prepositions into their correct Ayola forms carefully.

1. She performs her work with alacrity.

2. Can’t you do this without her help?

3. I run for the American Cancer Society’s charities.

4. She strives to act against pollution.

5. Can I exchange this blouse for that one?

6. I watched him fill the balloon with his own breath!

7. He delivered the letter for me.

8. They always vote for lower taxes.

9. They’ll pay us for the house we built.

10. Empty the bag of your books, please.

Exercise 3

Translate the underlined words into Ayola simple prepositions.

1. At any moment the bubble could burst.

2. You can finish the job in thirty minutes.

3. Wait one hour before swimming.

4. Cook the garlic after the onions.

5. Did you see the lighting during the storm?

6. I haven’t visited her since she lost her job.

7. You must study until I say to stop.

8. Follow the road along the river until you reach the bridge.

9. The road goes around the whole city.

10. Walk across the road and through the alley.

11. Starbucks has stores throughout the country.

Exercise 4

Translate the underlined words into Ayola simple prepositions.

1. Don’t stay her because of me.

2. I’ll work despite my intense fatigue.

3. She is more educated than her brother.

4. After the documentary, we talked about gorillas all night.

5. According to legend, this house was haunted.

6. The teacher helped her to recite her poem.

7. Please discourage him from going out late.

Exercise 5

The actions described in the sentences below can occur in an opposite way. Identify the simple or complex preposition in each sentence and translate it. If it has an opposite, translate its opposite, i.e. the simple or complex preposition in which the meaning of the first root is reversed.

1. The fish jumped into the water.

2. The airplane flew onto the runway.

3. The crowd moved to in front of the White House.

4. To catch the robber, the cop crept (to) behind the car.

5. His ball came flying from over the audience’s heads.

6. The cat ran (to) under the table.

7. Pass in front of the restaurant as you ride the bike.

8. The boat drove under the bridge.

9. Don’t watch the movie until after you’ve done your homework.

10. I’ve been working here since before you were born!

Exercise 6

Translate the following prepositions:

Exercise 7

Translate the following sentences into Ayola. Use the approximation for the English names.

1. Bob filled the balloon with helium.

2. Bob filled the balloon with a hose.

3. Bob filled the balloon with a friend.

4. Bob filled the balloon with a smile.

5. Betty discussed the movie with Arthur.

6. Betty and Arthur discussed the movie.

7. Betty saw the movie with Arthur.

8. Betty and Arthur (jointly) saw the movie.

Exercise 8

In each of the sentences identify a preposition whose root in Ayola may take other parts of speech endings. Underline the English preposition and translate it in its appropriate part of speech in Ayola, incorporating adjacent English words where appropriate.

1. Your college books are in my bedroom

2. Don’t give me the bottom tray. I’ll take the one above.

3. We take the downward elevator to get to the cafeteria.

4. The school will be across the river.

5. The bridge is across the river.

6. She always wants the opposite choice.

7. He walked up.

8. Consequently, they bought a house in Maine.

9. The front is more attractive than the back.