2.3 Verbs

Verbs either describe the action of the subject of the sentence or an action or relation between a subject and an object in the sentence. Verbs occur only in compound forms:

(prefix) + (root) + root + (suffix) + ending

where the endings are -are in the infinitive mood, -ats/-its/-uts in the indicative mood, and -aw in the imperative mood and where the components in parentheses are optional. Verbs which consist of only a verb root + ending are called fundamental verbs. Verbs which consist of a non-verb (noun, adjective, preposition) root + ending and/or have at least one of the optional components are called derived verbs.

Fundamental Verbs

eglare to equal eglats equals eglaw equal!

amare to love amits loved amaw love!

kurare to run kuruts runs kuraw run!

grimpare to climb grimpats climbs grimpaw climb!

Derived Verbs

overare to be over overats is over overaw be over!

rilergare to reread rilerguts will reread rilergaw reread!

rujihare to redden rujihits reddened rujihaw redden!

(to become red)

rujizare to redden rujizats reddens rujizaw redden!

(to make red)

Verbs may be divided into two classes:

1) stative verbs refer to an unchanging state or condition

Examples: eglare (to equal), amare (to love), vwelare (to want, to wish); enare (to be in)

2) dynamic verbs refer to an action or a change in state or condition

Examples: kurare (to run), frapare (to hit); eglihare (to become equal),

eglizare (to make equal)

Stative and dynamic verbs differ in their use of the verb tense endings and the aspect suffixes in two ways:

1. On stative verbs, the present tense ending -ats denotes a state which is true at the present time or in general, whereas on dynamic verbs, it denotes an action occurring habitually or continually

2. On stative verbs, the progressive aspect suffix -ant- is never used

2.3.1 The Indicative Mood & Verb Tenses

The three verb tense endings of the indicative mood in Ayola are -ats, -its, and -uts.

Table 2.3-1 Verb Tenses

Tense	Verb Ending	Ayola	English
Present/General	-ats	moy ludats	we play
Past	-its	moy ludits	we played
Future	-uts	moy luduts	we will play

Note that the -ats ending covers both of the following cases:

1. for stative verbs, e.g. to equal, to love, to be in, it denotes a relation occurring either at the present time or in general

Duso pyu duso eglats kwaro. Two plus two equals four.

Myo amats le libro. I love books.

La tablo enats la cambro. The table is in the room.

2. for dynamic verbs, e.g. to run, to hit, to equalize, to fall in love, to get into, it denotes an action occurring continually, habitually, etc.

Djim kurats anu caka vespero. Jim runs every evening.

Tayger Wudz frapats la bolo bone. Tiger Woods hits the ball well.

In order to denote an action occurring at the present time by using a dynamic verb, there are two options:

1. a verb with the -ats ending must be accompanied by the adverb nune (now) expressing present time

Djim kurats nune. Jim runs now.

Dya cantats nune. She sings now.

2. a verb with the progressive aspect suffix -ant- plus the -ats ending may be used

Myo pensats ke myo amihantats. I think I am falling in love.

Tayger Wudz frapantats bone Tiger Woods is hitting well

anu tidjurno. today.

For further discussion on verb aspect suffixes see section 2.3.4.

2.3.2 The Infinitive Mood

The infinitive ending is -are for all verbs. This is the form given in the dictionary. The infinitive can be used as either the subject of a verb, the object of a verb or the object of a preposition.

Vidare estats kreydare. To see is to believe.

Amare estats estare humana. To love is to be human.

Dya vwelats ganare alu Europa She wants to go to Europe

anu tisa somero. this summer.

Dya studats diligente furu He studies diligently in order

lernare fiziko. to learn physics.

Dyay enkuradjits dya aldu studare. They encouraged her to study.

Dyay helpits dya furu ernare They helped her to earn money.

moneo. (They earned money)

Dyay helpits dya aldu ernare They helped her to earn money.

moneo. (She earned money)

Note the difference between the last two sentences which is indicated by the different Ayola prepositions furu and aldu. In the last sentence with furu, the subject of the main sentence is the same as the logical subject of ernare, whereas in the sentence with aldu the object of the main sentence is the same as the logical subject of ernare.

Infinitives functioning as the object of the verb may themselves take another infinitive as an object:

Myo vwelats povare parlare I want to be able to speak

enu Ayola fluente. Ayola fluently.

Infinitive Verbs & the English Gerund

Because gerunds do not exist in Ayola, the English gerund is replaced by either the infinitive form of the verb or an event abstraction noun with the suffix -aj- plus the noun ending -o.

Replacement of the English gerund with the Ayola infinitive form is governed by the following rules:

1. When the gerund is the SUBJECT or OBJECT of the main verb of the sentence AND the subject of the verb in the gerund form is UNSPECIFIED, the English gerund may be translated by EITHER the infinitive verb form or the event abstraction noun accompanied by the generic article le in Ayola:

Seeing is believing.
To see is to believe.	Vidare estats kreydare.
(The typical event of) Seeing is (the typical event of) believing.	OR Le vidajo estats le kreydajo.

2. When the gerund is the OBJECT of the main verb of the sentence or the OBJECT of a preposition AND the subject of the main verb is also UNDERSTOOD to be the subject of the verb in the gerund form, the infinitive form MUST be used in Ayola:

The woman loves painting. La femo amats pentrare.

(she paints)

He began talking. Dya natcwits parlare.

(he talks)

They are fond of going to parties. Dyay fondats ganare alu festoy.

(they go to parties)

Are you interested in writing poems? Ey vu geinteresats byu skribare

(you write poems) poemoy?

The children are not happy about La bambinoy no estats felitca vonu

seeing a doctor. vizitare mediko.

(the children see the doctor)

He is excited about the hope of catching Dya estats ekcita vonu la esperayto jwi

a fish. kaptare pisko.

(he catches a fish)

Note: In the third sentence the gerund ‘going’ is the object of the preposition ‘of’ in English but the equivalent infinitive ganare is the object of the main verb fondats in Ayola.

Note: In the sixth sentence the gerund ‘catching’ is the object of the preposition ‘of’ in English but the equivalent infinitive kaptare is the object of the link jwi in Ayola.

3. When the gerund is the OBJECT of the main verb of the sentence AND no subject of the verb in the gerund form is specified, the event abstraction noun accompanied by either the individual generic article le or the collective generic article lo MUST be used in Ayola:

The woman loves painting. La femo amats le pentrajo.

(the typical event of painting individually)

(she herself may not paint)

The woman loves painting. La femo amats lo pentrajo.

(events of painting collectively)

Note: In cases when both the infinitive verb form and event abstraction noun may replace the English gerund, both possible sentences have the same meaning but the one using the infinitive(s) is more compact:

Seeing is believing.	Vidare estats kreydare.
	OR Le vidajo estats le kreydajo.
Seeing an event is believing that it occurred.	Vidare le evento estats kreydare ke dwa okazits.
OR The seeing of a (the typical) event is the believing of its occurrence.	OR La vidajo jwi le evento estats la kreydajo jwi dwaza okazajo.

2.3.3 The Imperative Mood

The imperative ending is -aw for all verbs. There are two imperative forms: the direct and the indirect.

In the direct imperative form, the subject is omitted and is assumed to be a second person (singular or plural). The name of the addressed person or thing may precede or follow the verb phrase and is separated from the verb by a comma.

Parlaw! Speak!

Regardaw la bela tcielo! Look at the beautiful sky!

Djon, venaw! John, come!

Venaw, Djon! Come, John!

In the indirect imperative form, the subject is stated and the indirect imperative word ye (let/may) must be used at the beginning of the sentence.

Ye moy ganaw! Let’s go!

Ye Bogon kunaw vu! May God be with you!

Ye Djon venaw! Let John come!

Note the distinction between the example sentences Djon, venaw! and Ye Djon venaw! where the presence of the indirect imperative word ye indicates clearly that ‘Djon’ is not being directly addressed.

2.3.4 Verb Aspects

There are three basic aspects in Ayola, namely progressive, perfective and inceptive which express continuing action, completed action, and action about to occur, respectively. These are indicated by the suffixes -ant-, -int-, and -unt-, respectively. There is one compound aspect, namely the perfective progressive marked by the suffix -aint-. The nine forms of the basic aspects in the indicative mood are shown in the table below.

Table 2.3-2 Verb Aspects in the Indicative Mood

The three basic aspects in the infinitive mood are shown in the table below.

Table 2.3-3 Verb Aspects in the Infinitive Mood

Myo lergantats bona libro.	I am reading a good book.
Moyza sestroy studantits fiziko.	Our sisters were studying physics.
Onu Saturndon myo skiirantuts.	On Saturday I will be skiing.
La kindoy cantintits enu tata kirko.	The children had sung in that church.
Onu tinakto atu 8 PM vu departuntuts.	Tonight at 8 PM you will be going to leave.

Note the use of the progressive aspect when translating English sentences such as the following:

I saw the children playing in the park.

Myo vidits la bambinoy dumke dyay ludantits enu la parko.

In the above case the English word ‘playing’ is a progressive adjective and not a gerund. The translation in Ayola must use the conjunction dumke followed by a clause containing the verb form in the progressive aspect, e.g. dyay ludantits.

Compound Verb Aspect

The progressive and the perfective aspects may be combined to form the perfective progressive aspect indicated by the compound aspect suffix -aint. Note that this suffix is pronounced with two separate vowels, i.e. ah-eent.

Table 2.3-4 Compound Verb Aspect in the Indicative Mood

Table 2.3-5 Compound Verb Aspect in the Infinitive Mood

Myo legaintats tata libro dumu dusa semanoy.	I have been reading that book for two weeks.
Moyza sestroy studaintits fiziko.	Our sisters had been studying physics.
Atu midago anu Saturndon myo skiiraintuts dumu dusa djornoy.	By noon on Saturday I will have been skiing for two days.

2.3.5 Transitive & Intransitive Verbs

Transitive Verbs

Transitive verbs comprise the great majority of all verbs. They express a relation between a subject and an object or an action of a subject on an object. The usual order in Ayola is subject-verb-object (SVO) except in interrogative sentences in which the order is object-subject-verb (OSV). While the direct object usually immediately follows the transitive verb, it may sometimes be preceded by a prepositional phrase.

Duso pyu treso eglats kwino. Two plus three equals five.

Myo fondats la libro. I like the book.

Hwo vu fondats? What do you like?

Dya donits carpo alu dyaza sestro. She gave a scarf to her sister.

Dya instruktits alu dyaza frato fiziko. He taught his brother physics.

Sometimes the direct object of a transitive verb may be omitted, but the verb is still regarded as transitive.

Dya instruktits alu dyo enu la haymo. She taught him at home.

Dya skribits aynu la libro. He wrote in the book.

Intransitive Verbs

Intransitive verbs express an action of a subject which is not transferred to an object. They may, however, be modified by a prepositional phrase or adverb.

Dyay dansits enu la festo. They danced at the party.

Myo dormuts dumu tuta la nakto. I will sleep all night.

La bambino kondutats bone. The child behaves well.

La katso myawits. The cat meowed.

Transitive/Intransitive Verb Pairs

In many natural languages there is a small but important class of verbs which are used both transitively and intransitively. If a verb can be used both ways in the natural languages, Ayola distinguishes between the transitive and intransitive by adding a -w- to the intransitive verb root to make the transitive verb root. These verb pairs generally denote various types of change, such as change in time, change of state, change of position and motion of an inanimate/animate object.

A sentence with the intransitive member of the pair and a subject is always equivalent to a sentence with the transitive member of the pair in which that subject becomes the object and samyo/samwo ‘someone/something’ becomes the subject. For instance:

La glaco meltits. Samyo/samwo meltwits la glaco.

The ice melted. Someone/something melted the ice.

La konserto natcits. Samyo/samwo natcwits la konserto.

The concert began. Someone/something began the concert.

La vetero candjits. Samyo/samwo candjwits la vetero.

The weather changed. Someone/something changed the weather.

Note the contrast between the above examples and the following examples in which the subject of the intransitive verb remains the subject of the transitive verb. Such verbs are not true intransitive/transitive pairs. They are transitive-only verbs whose so-called intransitive counterpart is simply the transitive verb with the object not explicitly stated.

Dya kumprits robo. Dya kumprits (samwo).

She bought a dress. She bought (something).

Dya vidits dyo. Dya vidits (samyo).

She saw him. She saw (somebody).

Transitive verbs which have a true associated intransitive pair member are the only ones whose roots end in a consonant followed by -w- .

Special Transitive/Intransitive Verb Pairs

For a small group of intransitive verbs whose roots end in either iy or uy, the transitive counterpart is formed by replacing the y with a w in order to avoid the combination yw after the vowels i or u.

La temperaturo variyats.	The temperature varies.
La nuboy variwats la temperaturo.	The clouds vary the temperature.
La kanalo fluyits.	The canal flowed.
Dyay fluwits la kanalo.	They flowed the canal.

Below is a list showing some of the commonly-used special transitive/intransitive verb pairs:

Table 2.3-6 Special Transitive/Intransitive Verb Pairs

Verbs with Roots Ending in iy/iw		Verbs with Roots Ending in uy/uw
asociyare	to associate	atenuyare	to attenuate
deviyare	to deviate	fluktuyare	to fluctuate
disociyare	to dissociate	fluyare	to flow
mariyare	to marry	graduyare	to graduate
variyare	to vary
ekspatriyare	to expatriate
eksfoliyare	to exfoliate

2.3.6 Verb Voices

There are two verb voices in Ayola, namely active and passive. All verb forms discussed so far are active. The corresponding passive forms are created by prefixing the passive prefix ge- for the direct object passive and go- for the indirect object passive.

Dya geamats byu cakyo. She is loved by everyone.

Viro gevidits enu la jardino. A man was seen in the garden.

Dya vwelats amare ce geamare. She wants to love and to be loved.

Kindoy, gevidaw ce no geawdaw! Children, be seen and be not heard!

Bona libro geskribantats. A good book is being written.

Bela pikturo gepentrintats. A beautiful picture has been painted.

Libro gedonits alu la femo byu amiko. A book was given to the woman by a

friend.

Dya goinstruktits byu bona profesoro. He was taught by a good professor.

La femo godonits libro byu amiko. The woman was given a book by a friend.

Dya gopruntits disko byu dyaza sestro. *She was borrowed a disk by her sister.

(A disk was borrowed from her by her sister.)

Ey vu godicintats intereso recente? Have you been told anything interesting

recently?

2.3.7 Reflexive Verbs

A reflexive verb describes an action in which the logical subject acts on itself, either as direct object or indirect object. Reflexive verbs can be either direct-object reflexive or indirect-object reflexive.

Direct-object reflexive verbs are formed by prefixing either an active or passive verb with

se-. Adjectives and nouns may then be derived from the verbs as is illustrated in the table below for the verb trompare (to deceive).

Table 2.3-7 Direct-Object Reflexive Verbs and Derivatives

Here are some sentences using the active forms:

Djil trompats Djak. Jill deceives Jack.

Djak trompats dyazelfo. Jack deceives himself.

Djak setrompats. Jack deceives himself.

Djak estats setrompa viro. Jack is self-deceiving man.

Djak farats setrompajo. Jack does (engages in) self-deception.

And some sentences using the passive forms:

Djak getrompats byu Djil. Jack is deceived by Jill.

Djak getrompats byu dyazelfo. Jack is deceived by himself.

Djak segetrompats. Jack is deceived by himself.

Djak estats segetrompa viro. Jack is a self-deceived man.

Djak farats setrompajo. Jack does (engages in) self-deception.

Note that, for both active and passive forms, the third sentence of the five is a more compact form equivalent in meaning to the second sentence, and that the reflexive verb yields a compact derived adjective. Note also that the noun with the event-abstraction suffix -aj- need use only the active form.

Indirect-object reflexive verbs are formed by prefixing either an active or passive verb with so-. The verbs and their derivatives are illustrated in the table below for the verb instruktare (to teach).

Table 2.3-8 Indirect-Object Reflexive Verbs and Derivatives

Here are some sentences using the active forms:

Djil instruktats fiziko alu Djak. Jill teaches physics to Jack.

Djak instruktats fiziko alu dyazelfo. Jack teaches physics to himself.

Djak soinstruktats fiziko. Jack teaches himself physics.

Djak estats soinstrukta viro. Jack is a self-teaching man.

Djak farats soinstruktajo. Jack does (engages in) self-teaching.

And some sentences using the passive forms:

Djak goinstruktats fiziko byu Djil. Jack is taught physics by Jill.

Djak goinstruktats fiziko byu dyazelfo. Jack is taught physics by himself.

Djak segoinstruktats fiziko. Jack is taught physics by himself.

Djak estats segoinstrukta viro. Jack is a self-taught man.

Djak farats soinstruktajo. Jack does (engages in) self-teaching.

Note the similarities with the direct-object forms discussed above. Note also the important difference: The reflexive-passive double prefix is sego- and not sogo-. With any passive forms the prefix se- specifies that the agent of the action is the same as the grammatical subject. The prefix go- already indicates that this grammatical subject is the indirect object of the original active verb.

In English the reflexive nature of some verbs is not explicitly indicated by a reflexive pronoun but is implicit.

Myo sevacats anteyke myo serazats. I wash before I shave.

2.3.8 Verbs Derived from Other Parts of Speech

Verbs Derived from Nouns

In order to derive a verb from a noun a suffix must be added to the noun root. Verbs can be derived from nouns by applying one of the following suffixes:

Table 2.3-9 Suffixes for Verbs Derived from Nouns

Suffix	Meaning	Simple Noun	English	Derived Verb	English
-ah-	to come to have <material/thing>	nubo	cloud	nubahare	to cloud (to become cloudy)
-az-	to cause to have <material/thing>	nubo fumo	cloud smoke	nubazare fumazare	to cloud (to cause to be cloudy) to smoke (to provide smoke to)
-etc-	to emit/release <material/thing>	fumo sango	smoke blood	fumetcare sangetcare	to smoke (to emit smoke) to bleed (to release blood)
-er-	to extract <material/thing> from	fumo milko	smoke milk	fumerare milkerare	to smoke (to extract smoke) to milk (to extract milk)
-if-	to produce <thing> as a result	sumo ruoto	sum root (in math)	sumifare ruotifare	to sum to take the root of
-ih-	to come to be in <state>	kristalo	crystal	kristalihare	to crystallize (to become a crystal)
-ir-	to use <tool> on	martelo fumo	hammer smoke	martelirare fumirare	to hammer to smoke (to smoke out)
-iz-	to cause to be in <state>	kristalo	crystal	kristalizare	to crystallize (to cause to be a crystal)

Verbs Derived from Adjectives

There are two groups of verbs derived from adjectives.

The first group of verbs is derived from adjectives which denote quantity. These adjectives, i.e. graded adjectives, occur in pairs of high or low degree of quantity (e.g. heavy/light, tall/short, old/young). The derived verbs are formed by prefixing an s- or a z- to the high-degree adjective root. The derived verb is neutral in degree. For example:

peza heavy and ledjera light but  spezare to weigh

Table 2.3-10 Prefixes for Verbs Derived from Graded Adjectives

The second group of verbs is derived from descriptive adjectives by applying the suffixes -ih- or -iz- to the adjective root. The derived verb denotes the process of ‘becoming’ or ‘causing to be’ in the state denoted by the descriptive adjective, respectively.

Table 2.3-11 Suffixes for Verbs Derived from Descriptive Adjectives

Verbs Derived from Verbs

Verbs can be derived from other verbs by applying prefixes and/or suffixes.

The majority of verbs derived from verbs are formed by applying a prefix.

Table 2.3-12 Prefixes for Verbs Derived from Verbs

Stative verbs, i.e. those denoting a state or condition, can take the following suffixes to form dynamic verbs, i.e. those denoting a process or change of state.

Table 2.3-13 Suffixes for Verbs Derived from Verbs

Verbs Derived from Prepositions

Verbs are derived from prepositions by changing the part of speech ending from -u to -are. The derived verb expresses the prepositional relation in more compact way using a single verb instead of estare + preposition.

Table 2.3-14 Verbs Derived from Prepositions

Preposition	English	Simple Derived Verb	English
enu	in, at	enare	to be in, at
anteyu	before	anteyare	to be before
postu	after	postare	to be after
vonu	about	vonare	to be about
kunu	with	kunare	to accompany

Exercises

Exercise 1

Decide whether these verbs are transitive only, intransitive only, or true intransitive/transitive pairs by Ayola’s definition as explained above. Write T (transitive), I (intransitive), or T/I (transitive/intransitive pair).

1. sell __________________________

2. cough __________________________

3. buy __________________________

4. move __________________________

5. rise __________________________

6. sleep __________________________

7. sneeze __________________________

8. verify __________________________

9. capitulate __________________________

10. finish __________________________

11. guess __________________________

12. contain __________________________

Exercise 2

The following sentences contain verbs which have intransitive/transitive pairs. Change the intransitive forms into their transitive forms and use samyo or samwo (someone, something) as the subject. Change the transitive forms into their intransitive forms and remove the stated subject.

Examples:

La bolo movantats. (The ball is moving.)

 Samwo movwantats la bolo. (Something is moving the ball).

Myo evaporwats la vodo. (I evaporate the water.)

 La vodo evaporats. (The water evaporates.)

1. Moy kombinwits moyza moneoy.

2. La milko djeluts.

3. Moyza profesoro krecwats la nombro je la studentoy jenu la klaseo.

4. Dyaza ligno brulats.

5. Tata kuroy hastuts.

6. Vu candjwits vuza klaydoy.

7. La storio kontinuyuts.

8. La vento flekswits la ramo.

9. La caro movantats.

10. La kondwiro akcelerwuts la caro.

Exercise 3

The following English sentences contain examples of both transitive and intransitive verbs. Provide the appropriate form of the indicated Ayola verb as it correlates to the underlined English verb. If the verb can be used both transitively and intransitively, be careful to include/not-include -w- in the root when translating.

1. The children arrived early this morning. (arivare) ________________________

2. The cold winds froze the lake. (djelare) ________________________

3. Some glasses broke during the earthquake. (rompare) ________________________

4. Dad asked you to boil some water. (boylare)

________________________

5. Nancy’s sunflowers grew to great heights. (kreskare) ________________________

6. Did you finish your homework? (finare) ________________________

7. Watch how high we can jump! (saltare) ________________________

8. Fire can burn dry wood more quickly. (brulare) ________________________

9. We watched as the storm developed in the sky. (developare)

________________________

10. Mix the ingredients well before you add them. (miksare) ________________________

Exercise 4

Provide the Ayola translations for all the verb forms listed below. The infinitive form of the verbs used will be given to you in parenthesis. If the verb can be used both transitively and intransitively, be careful to include/not-include -w- in the root when translating.

1. I was reading (lergare) __________________________________

2. we were swimming (nadare) __________________________________

3. he connected it (konektare) __________________________________

4. Look! (regardare) __________________________________

5. she ran (kurare) __________________________________

6. it is melting (meltare) __________________________________

7. they will have danced (dansare) __________________________________

8. you will be going to study (studare) __________________________________

9. it has been painted (pentrare) __________________________________

10. he is going to smoke (fumerare) __________________________________

Exercise 5

Determine whether the verb is a stative or dynamic verb. Write S (stative) or D (dynamic), then conjugate the bolded verb using the Ayola translation.

1. Three minus one equals two. (eglare)

2. The students are reading. (lergare)

3. I like classical music. (fondare)

4. Do you study now? (studare)

5. We feel excited. (sentare)

6. Alex is in the living room. (enare)

7. Mother is washing the baby. (vacare)

8. The king hates intruders. (odiyare)

9. The leaves fall from the trees now. (kadare)

10. The plane is flying fast. (volare)

Exercise 6

Are the following commands in the direct or indirect imperative moods? Write D (direct) or I (indirect). Translate the verbs accordingly.

1. Let’s walk to the beach! (kaminare)

2. Nora, don’t eat the cake! (mandjare)

3. May your day be happy! (estare)

4. Try this! (tratare)

5. Let her come with us! (venare)

6. Look at my dress! (regardare)

7. May you be safe! (estare)

8. Wear her shoes! (trazare)

9. Don’t worry, Karen! (vorjare)

10. Let’s sit! (sidare)

Exercise 7

Translate the verbs using the appropriate aspects and tenses.

1. are running

2. will be jumping

3. had seen

4. will have been eating

5. were going to jump

6. were eating

7. have been running

8. will be freezing

9. will have eaten

10. are going to eat

11. will be going to run

12. to have frozen

13. had been running

Exercise 8

Translate the verb by determining the correct voice (active, direct object passive, or indirect object passive) as well as intransitive/transitive forms.

1. The idea was understood by the students. (komprenare)

2. The peaches were eaten. (mandjare)

3. Our dog wants to be loved. (amare)

4. She eats peaches every day. (mandjare)

5. I was offended by your comments. (ofendare)

6. The cat is washing her tail. (vacare)

7. He has never been kissed. (kusare)

8. This piano was played by a famous musician. (tokare)

9. Will this book be understood? (komprenare)

10. The cheese was melted by the sun. (meltare)

Exercise 9

Using the direct object reflexive prefix se- or the indirect object reflexive prefix so- translate the reflexive verbs in the sentences below. Note that some verbs are followed by a reflexive pronoun whereas for others the reflexivity of the verb is implied.

1. My child can dress herself. (svectare)

2. He has to shave every morning. (razare)

3. The dishes are not going to wash themselves. (vacare)

4. Don’t kick yourself just because you lost. (kikare)

5. Can you teach yourself with this book? (instruktare)

6. We congratulate ourselves when we succeed. (kongratulare)

7. The mouse hid behind the chair. (skondare)

8. She combs ten times per day. (kombirare)

Exercise 10

Translate the verbs servare (to serve, to work for) and aponare (to serve, to bring forward) as they occur in their multiple active, reflexive, and passive verb, noun, and adjective forms. Translate the entire sentence.

1. Janet serves her sister the potatoes.

2. Janet serves the potatoes to herself.

3. Janet serves herself the potatoes.

4. Janet is a self-serving woman.

5. Janet self-serves.

6. Janet does self-serving.

7. Janet is served potatoes by her sister.

8. Janet is served potatoes by herself.

9. Janet is a self-served woman.

Exercise 11

How does the word ‘control’ translate in the following contexts? Translate the sentences.

1. Can’t you control your son?

2. Control your attitude, please!

3. Control yourself!

4. Your mother is very controlling.

5. She has a lot of self-control.

6. The self-controlled student will not misbehave.

7. They are self-controlling parents.

8. George is controlled by himself.

9. George is self-controlled.

Exercise 12

Determine the meaning of the derived verb by deciphering the meaning of the noun or adjective root and suffix within the word. The translation of the noun or adjective is provided.

1. rudzahare (rust)

2. matrihare (mother)

3. martelirare (hammer)

4. lentigahare (freckle)

5. gasetcare (gas)

6. fumerare (smoke)

7. pustihare (empty)

8. limpizare (clean)

Exercise 13

Determine the meaning of the derived verb by deciphering the meaning of the verb root and suffix within the word.

1. rilergare (to read)

2. superparlare (to speak)

3. sobestimare (to estimate)

4. surstudare (to study)

5. miskondutare (to behave)

6. resdjektare (to throw)

7. nonfrapare (to hit)

8. beawdare (to hear)

9. deskombinare (to combine)

10. kopracare (to work)

11. inferpracare (to work)

Exercise 14

Translate the verbs derived from the prepositions. The prepositions’ meanings are provided.

1. The cat is in the room. (enu)

2. She’s with me. (kunu)

3. Your door will be after mine. (postu)

4. His was before yours. (anteyu)

5. The book is under the chair. (onderu)

6. The storm will be over our heads. (overu)

7. These chapters were about war. (vonu)

Exercise 15

Determine whether the underlined word would be translated as a verb in the infinitive mood or with the event abstraction suffix or both. Translate the underlined word. When translating with the event abstraction suffix, be careful to use the appropriate article.

1. My father enjoys singing.

2. Knowing the right answer is not always enough.

3. We’re scared of becoming sick.

4. I love playing the piano.

5. Once he began talking, there was no stopping him.

6. “To be or not to be,” is a famous Shakespearean quote.

7. Finding a buried treasure is a typical event in pirate stories.

8. To smile on death is to fear nothing.

9. Are your friends interested in coming with us?

10. She thinks crying is a waste of time.